Low Maternal Seafood Intake During Exclusive Lactation Does Not Significantly Affect Milk Protein Content
##plugins.themes.academic_pro.article.main##
Abstract
Human milk, which contains complex and highly variably biofluid that nourishes and protects the newborn, is the gold standard for infant nutrition. The biological activity of human milk is significantly influenced by proteins. However, the relationship between crude protein in human milk and the amount of milk consumed by mothers during the exclusive breastfeeding period has not been thoroughly investigated. In the current study, 194 healthy women who were exclusively breastfeeding participated in a cross-sectional study to collect human milk samples and complete a quantitative frequent food questionnaire (FFQ). The consumption of cereals, potatoes, sweet potatoes, leafy vegetables, fruits, other vegetables, legumes, nuts, eggs, meats, dairy products, and seafood was grouped based on the consumption of the mother the day before milk collection. The mid-infrared milk analyzer was used to analyze the samples and determine protein concentration. Using the t-test to analyze the impact of partial factors, and the F-test was employed to evaluate the influence of variables concurrently, at a 5% significance level. The statistical relationship between maternal diet and protein content was evaluated. Seafood consumption was categorized as low compared to other groups. Self-imposed maternal food restrictions may be the cause of the reduced seafood consumption. Human milk has an average protein level of 1.02 g/100 ml. According to the statistics, there was no significant correlation between the crude protein content of human milk and seafood consumption. However, a strong correlation was found between the consumption of eggs, legumes, and nuts, suggesting that these foods may impact on the protein content of human milk (p value <0.05). This finding would suggest that to improve the protein content composition of human milk, nursing mothers should consume more local, high-protein foods.
##plugins.themes.academic_pro.article.details##

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
- Nurdiani R, Prihanto AA, Firdaus M. Seafood as source of protein-based functional foods. Encycl Mar Biotechnol 2020:2987–97. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119143802.ch133.
- Picciano MF. Nutrient composition of human milk. Pediatr Clin North Am 2001;48:53–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-3955(05)70285-6.
- Sari RN, Pan J, Zhang W, Li Y, Zhu H, Pang X, et al. Comparative Proteomics of Human Milk From Eight Cities in China During Six Months of Lactation in the Chinese Human Milk Project Study. Front Nutr 2021;8:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.682429.
- Barrera C, Valenzuela R, Chamorro R, Bascuñán K, Sandoval J, Sabag N, et al. The impact of maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation on the fatty acid composition of erythrocytes and breast milk of chilean women. Nutrients 2018;10:1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10070839.
- Keikha M, Bahreynian M, Saleki M, Kelishadi R. Macro- and Micronutrients of Human Milk Composition: Are They Related to Maternal Diet? A Comprehensive Systematic Review. Breastfeed Med 2017;12:517–27. https://doi.org/10.1089/bfm.2017.0048.
- Ueno HM, Higurashi S, Shimomura Y, Wakui R, Matsuura H, Shiota M, et al. Association of DHA Concentration in Human Breast Milk with Maternal Diet and Use of Supplements: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Data from the Japanese Human Milk Study Cohort. Curr Dev Nutr 2020;4:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/CDN/NZAA105.
- Biddulph C, Holmes M, Kuballa A, Davies PSW, Koorts P, Carter RJ, et al. Human milk oligosaccharide profiles and associations with maternal nutritional factors: A scoping review. Nutrients 2021;13:1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030965.
- Sharma S. Nutrition Society Silver Medal Lecture Development and use of FFQ among adults in diverse settings across the globe. Proc. Nutr. Soc., vol. 70, 2011, p. 232–51. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665110004775.
- Zang J, Luo B, Chang S, Jin S, Shan C, Ma L, et al. Validity and reliability of a food frequency questionnaire for assessing dietary intake among Shanghai residents. Nutr J 2019;18:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-019-0454-2.
- Butts CA, Hedderley DI, Herath TD, Paturi G, Glyn-Jones S, Wiens F, et al. Human Milk Composition and Dietary Intakes of Breastfeeding Women of Different Ethnicity from the Manawatu-Wanganui Region of New Zealand n.d. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091231.
- Aumeistere L, Ciproviča I, Zavadska D, Andersons J, Volkovs V, Ceļmalniece K. Impact of maternal diet on human milk composition among lactating women in Latvia. Med 2019;55:1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina55050173.
- Casadio YS, Williams TM, Lai CT, Olsson SE, Hepworth AR, Hartmann PE. Evaluation of a mid-infrared analyzer for the determination of the macronutrient composition of human milk. J Hum Lact 2010;26:376–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890334410376948.
- Ding Y, Li F, Hu P, Ye M, Xu F, Jiang W, et al. Reproducibility and relative validity of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire for the Chinese lactating mothers. Nutr J 2021;20:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-021-00678-5.
- Liu G, Ding Z, Li X, Chen X, Wu Y, Xie L. Relationship between polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in maternal diets and human milk in the first month post-partum. J Hum Nutr Diet 2016;29:405–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12337.
- Burianova I, Bronsky J, Pavlikova M, Janota J, Maly J. Maternal body mass index, parity and smoking are associated with human milk macronutrient content after preterm delivery. Early Hum Dev 2019;137:104832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2019.104832.
- Wojcicki JM. Maternal prepregnancy body mass index and initiation and duration of breastfeeding: A review of the literature. J Women’s Heal 2011;20:341–7. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2010.2248.
- Emmett PM, Rogers IS. Properties of human milk and their relationship with maternal nutrition. Early Hum Dev 1997;49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3782(97)00051-0.
- Achon M, Ubeda N, Garcia-Gonzalez A, Partearroyo T, Varela-Moreiras G. Effect of Milk and Dairy Product Consumption on Pregnancy and Lactation Outcomes: A Systematic Review. Am Soc Nutr 2019;10:S74–87. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmz009.
- Kanungsukkasem U, Ng N, Van Minh H, Razzaque A, Ashraf A, Juvekar S, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption in rural adults population in indepth hdss sites in asia. Glob Health Action 2009;2:35–43. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v2i0.1988.
- Hu R, Eussen SRBM, Sijtsma FPC, Papi B, Stahl B, Jin Y, et al. Maternal dietary patterns are associated with human milk composition in Chinese lactating women. Nutrition 2021;91–92:111392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2021.111392.
- Lönnerdal B, Erdmann P, Thakkar SK, Sauser J, Destaillats F. Longitudinal evolution of true protein, amino acids and bioactive proteins in breast milk: a developmental perspective. J Nutr Biochem 2017;41:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2016.06.001.
- Elwakiel M, Boeren S, Hageman JA, Szeto IM, Schols HA, Hettinga KA. Variability of serum proteins in Chinese and dutch human milk during lactation. Nutrients 2019;11:1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11030499.
- Shi YD, Sun GQ, Zhang ZG, Deng X, Kang XH, Liu ZD, et al. The chemical composition of human milk from Inner Mongolia of China. Food Chem 2011;127:1193–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.01.123.
- Lönnerdal B. Bioactive Proteins in Human Milk - Potential Benefits for Preterm Infants. Clin Perinatol 2016;11:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clp.2016.11.013.
- Fujita M, Roth E, Lo YJ, Hurst C, Vollner J, Kendell A. In poor families, mothers’ milk is richer for daughters than sons: A test of Trivers-Willard hypothesis in agropastoral settlements in Northern Kenya. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012;149:52–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22092.
- Quinn EA. No Evidence for Sex Biases in Milk Macronutrients , Energy , or Breastfeeding Frequency in a Sample of Filipino Mothers. Am J Phys Anthropol 2013;216:209–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22346.
- Hahn WH, Song JH, Song S, Kang N mi. Do gender and birth height of infant affect calorie of human milk? An association study between human milk macronutrient and various birth factors. J Matern Neonatal Med 2017;30:1608–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2016.1219989.
- Lönnerdal B. Human milk proteins: Key components for the biological activity of human milk. Adv Exp Med Biol 2004;554:11–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4242-8_4.
- Nommsen LA, Lovelady, Cheryl A; Heinig, M Jane; Lonnerdal, Bo; Dewey KG. Determinants of energy , protein , lipid , and lactose concentrations in human milk during the first 12 mo of lactation : the DARLING. Am Soc Clin Nutr 1990;53:457–65. https://doi.org/doi: 10.1093/ajcn/53.2.457.
- Tanwar B, Modgil R, Goyal A. Protein quality assessment of pecan [Carya illinoinensis (wangenh.) K. Koch] and pine (Pinus gerardiana wall.) nuts for dietary supplementation. Nutr Food Sci 2022;52:641–56. https://doi.org/10.1108/NFS-08-2021-0260.
- Brufau G, Boatella J, Rafecas M. Nuts: Source of energy and macronutrients. Br J Nutr 2006;96:24–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/BJN20061860.
- Palmer DJ, Gold MS, Makrides M. Effect of maternal egg consumption on breast milk ovalbumin concentration. Clin Exp Allergy 2008;38:1186–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03014.x.
- Metcalfe JR, Marsh JA, D’Vaz N, Geddes DT, Lai CT, Prescott SL, et al. Effects of maternal dietary egg intake during early lactation on human milk ovalbumin concentration: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Exp Allergy 2016;46:1605–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12806.
- Hughes J, Pearson E, Grafenauer S. Legumes-A comprehensive Exploration of Global Food-Based Dietary Guidlines and Consumption. Nutrients 2022;14:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1201/b13349-9.
- Goksugur SB, Karatas Z. Breastfeeding and Galactogogues Agents. Acta Medica Anatolia 2014;2:113. https://doi.org/10.15824/actamedica.56572.
- Buntuchai G, Pavadhgul P, Kittipichai W, Satheannoppakao W. Traditional Galactagogue Foods and Their Connection to Human Milk Volume in Thai Breastfeeding Mothers. J Hum Lact 2017;33:552–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890334417709432.